Foreign
Languages
Studying Greek & Latin
by
Patrick S.J. Carmack
Carpe Diem – Seize the Day
We are often asked for our opinion regarding
the importance of the study of foreign languages. For
most students, there is, perhaps, no greater intellectual
accomplishment than to master a foreign language. Many
benefits accrue to students who do so: the ability to
communicate with the peoples who speak the language
learned; the ability to read their literature and gain
a new cultural perspective; greatly enhanced understanding
of language and its structure, including of English;
deeper understanding of words derived from or cognates
of the foreign vocabulary learned; intellectual discipline;
the inevitable sense of accomplishment. These benefits
accrue to anyone who learns any foreign language. But
two languages in particular stand out as providing these
benefits in unique and special ways, simply because
they are the main root languages of Western culture
– Greek and Latin. Here are some comments on this
subject by recognized beneficiaries:
“Hardly
any lawful price would seem to me too high for what
I have gained by being made to learn Latin and Greek.”
- C.S. Lewis
“To
read Latin and Greek authors in their original, is
a sublime luxury. I thank on my knees him who directed
my early education for having put into my possession
this rich source of delight; and I would not exchange
it for anything which I could then have acquired,
and have not since acquired.” – Thomas
Jefferson
As
J.W. MacKail put it: “Latin and Greek are
not dead languages. They have merely ceased to be
mortal.”
"I
now entered the first class of what today would be
called the gymnasium for classical languages [Greek
and Latin]...In retrospect it seems to me that an
education in Greek and Latin antiquity created a mental
attitude that resisted seduction by a totalitarian
ideology." - Pope Benedict XVI, Memoirs
Such
quotations could be multiplied here – and perhaps
they should be. Both of these ancient, inflected languages
greatly contribute to a knowledge of English, from its
ancient roots. As the modern Romance languages (including
Spanish, Italian, French, inter alia ) all stem from
Latin, their mastery is much simplified by learning
Latin first. Moreover, both languages open a whole new
depth of penetration into the meaning of the most important
books (and words) written for a span of nearly 2,000
years (from the Iliad and the Bible through the High
Middle Ages).
So
we strongly recommend the study of both Greek and Latin,
for all of the above reasons. However, we do not disagree,
with respect to public education, with the opinion of
Jacques Maritain who wrote, in Education at the Crossroads:
“In
my opinion, the study of Greek and Latin would represent
chiefly a waste of time for the many destined to forget
them: Latin, Greek, Hebrew (or at least one of these
three root-languages of our civilization) should be
learned later on—much more rapidly and fruitfully
– by graduate students in languages, literature,
history or philosophy. During the humanities, moreover,
comparative grammar and philology would provide students
with a most useful knowledge of the inner mechanisms
of language. And foreign languages, studied not only
for practical purposes but also in connection with
the national language, would afford the required means
of gaining mastery over the latter (particularly through
exercises of translation)…comparative grammar
and philology should be taught as instruments rather
than as sciences, and in a manner fitted to the sphere
of knowledge of the young- before the college, during
the years of secondary education.”
It
may be observed, with respect to the above quotation,
that what is being recommended in not that foreign languages
not be studied, but that the manner of the study in
high school years be somewhat limited, to translation
exercises and comparative grammar and word study, to
be followed in college with more comprehensive study.
It is hard to dispute that, for students who do not
go on to college studies in linguistics, literature,
history, philosophy, theology, medicine, law or fields
involving international relations, the usefulness of
learning a foreign language many be quite limited. Of
course, in the United States, a knowledge of Spanish
is becoming increasingly important, and, arguably, even
essential in the Southwest. Spanish derived from Latin,
and is very similar to it (additionally, one who learns
Spanish can communicate with Italian-speakers, if roughly),
which may soon force the following critique to become
obsolete:
What
does one call someone who speaks two languages? Answer:
bilingual
What does one call someone who speaks three languages?
Answer: trilingual
What does one call someone who speaks only one language?
Answer: American
The
approach of our Great Books programs is somewhat nuanced.
Our students, for the most part, are heading on to college
or a university, and are already seriously engaged in
the humanities in the Great Books program. We begin
with study of the ancient Greeks, followed by the ancient
Romans. So a serious study of ancient Greek and Latin,
begun in the elementary years, has far more potential
for benefit for such students than for others, particularly
if drawn to the classics (as many are) and desirous
of reading them in their original language. Nevertheless,
the realities of the current educational circumstances
in America are that most students do not study the ancient
languages, and, these are not essential for the study
of the Great books of Western civilization – all
of which are available in excellent English translations.
But
for those students with the time, inclination and desire,
we have organized both a Greek and a Latin curriculum,
which is, we believe, the best available. So, consistent
with the motto of Robert M. Hutchins, which we have
adopted: “The best education for the best is the
best educational for all,” we recommend the following
texts for the study of classical (Attic) Greek, and
Latin. There are different dialects and stages of historical
development in both languages.
Following
this article is one addressing the differences among
classical or Attic Greek, koine (common) Greek (that
used in the New Testament), Byzantine Greek (mainly
liturgical) and the modern Greek spoken in Greece today.
Attic Greek is the ancient Greek dialect of the Golden
Age of Classical Athens and the language of the philosophers
Plato and Aristotle, the orators Lysias and Demosthenes,
and the historians Thucydides and Xenophon. Attic Greek
differs from the Epic Greek of Homer and the Koine or
Common Greek of the New Testament. Teachers of Greek
generally agree that it is easier for students who learn
Attic Greek first to go on to Epic or Koine Greek than
the reverse. So, even if one's goal is to read Homer
or the New Testament in Greek, it is best to begin by
learning Attic (classical) Greek. Unlike Latin, no daughter
languages developed from Greek, and it survives only
in modern Greece and Byzantine liturgical use.
The
similar variations in Latin (classical vs. ecclesiastical
[Church or Italianate Latin] vs. Anglo-Norman [used
less and less frequently in American courts]), are much
less important. The principal difference being in pronunciation,
and only notably regarding c’s and g’s (which
classical pronounces hard as k’s and g’s
[ecclesiastical soft, as ch’s and j’s] and
v’s (which classical pronounces as w’s [ecclesiastical
as v’s, and ae’s as long a’s].
We encourage students to begin their study of foreign
languages early, with ancient Greek and/or Latin, but
certainly any foreign language is much better than none.
Early familiarity with language is a great aid in later
studies. Some studies indicate the onset of puberty
is too late for optimal memory work in foreign languages
- but better a bit late than never!
We
recommend students begin the study of Greek and/or Latin
in the 1st, 2nd or 3rd grades. Recommended elementary
texts are online at the Academy Bookstore. For students
who finish these beginner’s series, and for beginning
5th (if good students) through 12th graders, we recommend
the Greek course and the Latin course offered at the
bookstore. Unless one knows the language already, the
Teacher’s Handbooks will be needed. The vocabulary
cards are useful aids as are the CDs and/or cassettes.
We also list very helpful websites, including some designed
specifically for the Oxford courses, below. Both series
share one common co-author, which aids the student with
a similarity of approach and technique. Greek and Latin
can, of course, be learned sequentially or concurrently.
These courses combines the best features of both modern
and traditional methods of Greek and Latin teaching.
The
interesting encyclical letter on the use of Latin, by
Pope John XXIII, Veterum sapientia, follows the next
article by Jay Treat. Here are some excellent web resources:
Greek
websites
Latin
websites
Bolchazy
Carducci Publishers (800-392-6453) carry a couple of
Dr. Seuss books written in Latin, and there is Winnie
the Pooh in Latin, which you can borrow from your library.
Differences
Between Classical and Hellenistic Greek
A Quick Introduction by Jay C. Treat
General Characterization
The sources listed below
indicate ways in which Koinê (or Hellenistic)
Greek differs from Classical Greek. The following is
a summary of some of the main points they raise.
Robertson
characterizes Koinê Greek as a later development
of Classical Greek, that is, the dialect spoken in Attica
(the region around Athens) during the classical period.
To
all intents and purposes the vernacular Koinh is the
later vernacular Attic with normal development under
historical environment created by Alexander's conquests.
On this base then were deposited varied influences from
the other dialects, but not enough to change the essential
Attic character of the language (Robertson 71).
If
the Koinê is an outgrowth of Classical Greek,
what are the differences between the two? Robertson
states the basic differences succinctly. Koinê
was more practical than academic, putting the stress
on clarity rather than eloquence. Its grammar was simplified,
exceptions were decreased and generalized, inflections
were dropped or harmonized, and sentence-construction
made easier. Koinê was the language of life and
not of books.
Orthography
Orthographic changes are relatively minor.
Attic tt usually becomes ss. There is a tendency to
change rough breathing to smooth breathing, except in
words that once contained a digamma (or words used in
analogy with them). Elision is not as common in the
Koinê but there is even more assimilation than
in Classical usage. There is less concern for rhythm.
The -mi forms are beginning to drop out. The movable
consonants in ou3twj and e0stin are added regardless
of whether the next word begins with a vowel, as Classical
usages required. Accent by pitch gives way to accent
by stress.
Vocabulary
Changes in vocabulary are of course too numerous
to list here. Generally, it may be said that there are
many shifts in the meaning of words and in the frequency
of their usage. Some examples that Gingrich gives are
as follows. Kalw~j nearly replaces eu], e1sxatoj has
taken over teleutai=oj and u3statoj, pro/baton replaces
oi]j, and afi/hmi overshadows e9a/w. A dramatic example
of a word that shifts meanings is ba/sanoj, which shifts
from "touchstone," to "test," to
"torture," to "disease." We notice
other important shifts. The cardinal numeral ei[j loses
some of its numeric force and become equivalent to the
indefinite pronoun tij in many cases. Also, i1dioj is
used as a possessive pronoun. e9autw~n is substituted
for the Classical first and second person plural reflexive
pronouns. Robertson points out that Koinê is not
adverse to useful foreign words.
Accidence
There is quite a bit of difference with reference
to accidence. The Ionic substantive form -rhj takes
precedence over the Attic form -raj. Possessive adjectives,
which Classical Greek used for the emphatic possessive
genitive of the personal pronoun, have to a great extent
disappeared in Koinê and have been replaced by
the personal pronoun in the genitive. The system used
to express degrees of comparison in adjectives has been
simplified, since superlative forms have mostly disappeared
(comparative forms being used in their place) and what
vestigial superlatives remain are used mostly in the
elative sense.
It
is with respect to the verb that most change in accidence
has occurred. First, there are no dual forms in Koinê.
Secondly, the future tense has retreated. That is, alternative
forms are eliminated in that tense; the (non-periphrastic)
future perfect is mostly eliminated; the simple perfect
is limited mostly to the indicative mood; and the future
participle is becoming disused. However, the future
indicative is taking on some of the functions of the
aorist subjunctive. Thirdly, the optative has a very
limited use (which will be discussed later). Fourthly,
verbal adjectives in -te/oj are lacking (the only NT
example is in Luke 5:38), and those in -to/j have been
crystallized into a set group. Fifthly, periphrastic
construction is on the increase. Sixthly, the pluperfect
in Koinê no longer requires the augment, and the
tense sign becomes -kei- instead of -ke-. Lastly, the
passive is beginning to gain the ascendancy over the
middle voice. Most of these trends can be seen to have
carried on into Modern Greek.
In
the Septuagint, the verbal ending -san is used with
thematic aorists and imperfects; e.g., -ei1dosan, -ela/bosan,
and -h1lqosan. Aorist verbs in -a occur more frequently
in Koinê; e.g., h]qan.
Syntax
There are many differences between Classical
Greek and Koinê in syntax. Koinê has shorter
sentences, more parataxis and less hypotaxis, a sparing
use of participles, and a growth in the use of prepositions
(although some old ones have died out). Variations of
nouns, adjectives, and verbs are often according to
sense, and a neuter plural substantive may be used with
either a singular or a plural verb. Koinê used
personal pronouns in oblique cases much more often,
whereas writers in Attic used them only when they were
necessary for clarity.
One
of the biggest syntactical differences involves the
use of the optative mood. Blass notes three Classical
uses of this mood. The first is to denote an attainable
wish. This use still occurs in the Septuagint, the New
Testament, and the papyri, but there is a strong tendency
to use the imperative in requests and imprecations.
Attic ei1qe and ei0 ga/r do not occur with the optative
in Koinê (nor do they occur with the indicative
to show an unattainable wish); rather o1felon with the
future indicative is employed. The second use is the
potential optative in a main clause with a1n to denote
what is thought. This use has mostly disappeared, although
it does occur in some apodoses of conditional sentences.
The future indicative or the subjunctive often replaces
the potential optative. The third use of the optative
is that in indirect discourse. Koinê uses this
function very little; in fact, it uses indirect discourse
very little. The iterative optative in subordinate clauses
is supplanted by a1n and the imperfect or aorist indicative.
Dana says the optative in indirect discourse occurs
only three times in the NT but he makes no mention at
all of the optative with a secondary tense of verbs
of fearing.
In
Classical Greek there were five types of conditional
sentences (using Blass's classification): 1) real conditions
(ei0 with the indicative), 2) contrary-to-fact conditions
(ei0 with an augmented tense of the indicative), 3)
conditions of more vivid expectation (e0a/n with the
subjunctive), 4) conditions of less vivid expectation
(e0a/n with the potential optative), and 5) repetition
in past time (ei0 with the optative). In Koinê,
type 1 (real conditions) has lost ground, type 2 (contrary-to-fact
conditions) persists, type 3 (more vivid conditions)
prevails, type 4 (less vivid conditions) is barely represented,
and type 5 (repetition in past time) has disappeared.
One Classical feature Koinê does not have is the
conditional relative clause, in which the indefinite
pronoun substitutes for the conditional conjunction.
Another
syntactical feature of Classical Greek missing in Koinê
is the object clause. After a verb of striving, caring,
or effecting, Classical Greek uses o3pwj with the future
indicative for the object, but Koinê does not.
In
Classical result clauses, w#ste with the infinitive
signifies a probable result, while w#ste with the indicative
signifies an actual result. The distinction is more
nebulous in Koinê and Dana and Mantey say the
infinitive here signifies an intended result.
Robertson
says that o3pwj has retreated before i3na and w(j before
o3ti. i3na took over the function of the final particle
and split the function of declarative conjunction with
o3ti. He also mentions that mh/ began to take over many
of the functions of ou0, except in the combination of
ou0 with ei0.
Sources
- Blass,
Friedrich and A. Debrunner. A Greek Grammar of the
New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature.
Translated and revised by Robert W. Funk. Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1961.
- Dana,
E. H., and Mantey, J. R. A Manual Grammar of the Greek
New Testament. New York: MacMillan Co., 1927.
- Gingrich,
F. Wilbur. "The Greek New Testament as a Landmark
in the Course of Semantic Change." Journal of
Biblical Literature 73 (1954): 189-196.
- Robertson,
A.T. A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light
of Historical Research. Nashville: Broadman Press,
1934.
- Conybeare,
F. C. and St. G. Stock. "Grammar of Septuagint
Greek." Selections from the Septuagint. Boston:
Ginn & Company, 1905.
Copyright
© 1998 Jay C. Treat. All Rights Reserved.
[Reprinted
here with the kind permission of the author]
Why
Latin? According to Pope John XXIII
Veterum sapientia
February 22, 1962
THE
WISDOM of the ancient world, enshrined in Greek and
Roman literature, and the truly memorable teaching of
ancient peoples, served, surely, to herald the dawn
of the Gospel which God's Son, "the judge and teacher
of grace and truth. the light and guide of the human
race," (1) proclaimed on earth. Such was the view
of the Church's Fathers and Doctors. In these outstanding
literary monuments of antiquity. they recognized man's
spiritual preparation for the supernatural riches which
Jesus Christ communicated to mankind "to give history
its fulfillment." (2)
Thus
the inauguration of Christianity did not mean the obliteration
of man's past achievements. Nothing was lost that was
in any way true, just, noble and beautiful.
VENERABLE
LANGUAGES
The
Church has ever held the literary evidences of this
wisdom in the highest esteem. She values especially
the Greek and Latin languages in which wisdom itself
is cloaked, as it were, in a vesture of gold. She has
likewise welcomed the use of other venerable languages,
which flourished in the East. For these too have had
no little influence on the progress of humanity and
civilization. By their use in sacred liturgies and in
versions of Holy Scripture, they have remained in force
in certain regions even to the present day, bearing
constant witness to the living voice of antiquity.
A
PRIMARY PLACE
But
amid this variety of languages a primary place must
surely be given to that language which had its origins
in Latium, and later proved so admirable a means for
the spreading of Christianity throughout the West.
And
since in God's special Providence this language united
so many nations together under the authority of the
Roman Empire--and that for so many centuries--it also
became the righful language of the Apostolic See. (3)
Pre served for posterity, it proved to be a bond of
unity for the Christian peoples of Europe.
THE
NATURE OF LATIN
Of
its very nature Latin is most suitable for promoting
every form of culture among peoples. It gives rise to
no jealousies. It does not favor anyone nation, but
presents itself with equal impartiality to all and is
equally acceptable to all.
Nor
must we overlook the characteristic nobility of Latin's
formal structure. Its "concise, varied and harmonious
style, full of majesty and dignity" makes for singular
clarity and impressiveness of _expression.
PRESERVATION
OF LATIN BY THE HOLY SEE
For
these reasons the Apostolic See has always been at pains
to preserve Latin, deeming it worthy of being used in
the exercise of her teaching authority "as the
splendid vesture ofher heavenly doctrine and sacred
laws." (4) She further requires her sacred ministers
to use it, for by so doing they are the better able,
wherever they may be, to acquaint themselves with the
mind of the Holy See on any matter, and communicate
the more easily with Rome and with one another.
Thus
the "knowledge and use of this language,"
(5) so intimately bound up with the Church's life, "is
important not so much on cultural or literary grounds,
as for religious reasons." (6) These are the words
of Our Predecessor Pius XI, who conducted a scientific
inquiry into this whole subject, and indicated three
qualities of the Latin language which harmonize to a
remarkable degree with the Church's nature. "For
the Church, precisely because it embraces all nations
and is destined to endure to the end of time, of its
very nature requires a language which is universal,
immutable, and non vernacular." (7)
UNIVERSAL
Since
"every Church must assemble round the Roman Church,"
(8) and since the Supreme Pontiffs have "true episcopal
power, ordinary and immediate, over each and every Church
and each and every Pastor, as well as over the faithful"
(9) of every rite and language, it seems particularly
desirable that the instrument of mutual communication
be uniform and universal, especially between the Apostolic
See and the Churches which use the same Latin rite.
When,
therefore, the Roman Pontiffs wish to instruct the Catholic
world, or when the Congregations of the Roman Curia
handle matters or draw up decrees which concern the
whole body of the faithful, they invariably make use
of Latin, for this is a maternal voice acceptable to
countless nations.
IMMUTABLE
Furthermore,
the Church's language must be not only universal but
also immutable. Modern languages are liable to change,
and no single one of them is superior to the others
in authority. Thus if the truths of the Catholic Church
were entrusted to an unspecified number of them, the
meaning of these truths, varied as they are, would not
be manifested to everyone with sufficient clarity and
precision. There would, moreover, be no language which
could serve as a common and constant norm by which to
gauge the exact meaning of other renderings.
But
Latin is indeed such a language. It is set and unchanging.
It has long since ceased to be affected by those alterations
in the meaning of words which are the normal result
of daily, popular use. Certain Latin words, it is true,
acquired new meanings as Christian teaching developed
and needed to be explained and defended, but these new
meanings have long since become accepted and firmly
established.
NON-VERNACULAR
Finally,
the Catholic Church has a dignity far surpassing that
of every merely human society, for it was founded by
Christ the Lord. It is altogether fitting, therefore,
that the language it uses should be noble, majestic,
and nonvernacular.
In
addition, the Latin language "can be called truly
catholic." (10) It has been consecrated through
constant use by the Apostolic See, the mother and teacher
of all Churches, and must be esteemed "a treasure
of incomparable worth." (11). It [Latin] is a general
passport to the proper understanding of the Christian
writers of antiquity and the documents of the Church's
teaching. It is also a most effective bond, binding
the Church of today with that of the past and of the
future in wonderful continuity.
EDUCATIONAL
VALUE OF LATIN
There
can be no doubt as to the formative and educational
value either of the language of the Romans or of great
literature generally. It is a most effective training
for the pliant minds of youth. It exercises, matures,
and perfects the principal faculties of mind and spirit.
It sharpens the wits and gives keenness of judgment.
It helps the young mind to grasp things accurately and
develop a true sense of values. It is also a means for
teaching highly intelligent thought and speech.
A
NATURAL RESULT
It
will be quite clear from these considerations why the
Roman Pontiffs have so often extolled the excellence
and importance of Latin, and why they have prescribed
its study and use by the secular and regular clergy,
forecasting the dangers that would result from its neglect.
A
RESOLVE TO UPHOLD LATIN
And
We also, impelled by the weightiest of reasons--the
same as those which prompted Our Predecessors and provincial
synods (13)--are fully determined to restore this language
to its position of honor, and to do all We can to promote
its study and use. The employment of Latin has recently
been contested in many quarters, and many are asking
what the mind of the Apostolic See is in this matter.
We have therefore decided to issue the timely directives
contained in this document, so as to ensure that the
ancient and uninterrupted use of Latin be maintained
and, where necessary, restored. We believe that We made
Our own views on this subject sufficientIy clear when
We said to a number of eminent Latin scholars:
"It
is a matter of regret that so many people, unaccountably
dazzled by the marvelous progress of science, are taking
it upon themselves to oust or restrict the study of
Latin and other kindred subjects. ...Yet, in spite of
the urgent need for science, Our own view is that the
very contrary policy should be followed. The greatest
impression is made on the mind by those things which
correspond more closely to man's nature and dignity.
And therefore the greatest zeal should be shown in the
acquisition of whatever educates and ennobles the mind.
Otherwise poor mortal creatures may well become like
the machines they build--cold, hard, and devoid of love."
(14)
PROVISIONS
FOR THE PROMTION OF LATIN STUDIES
With
the foregoing considerations in mind, to which We have
given careful thought, We now, in the full consciousness
of Our Office and in virtue of Our authority, decree
and command the following:
RESPONSIBILITY
FOR ENFORCEMENT
1.Bishops
and superiors-general of religious orders shall rake
pains to ensure that in their seminaries and in their
schools where adolescents are trained for the priesthood,
all shall studiously observe the Apostolic Sees decision
in this matter and obey these Our prescriptions most
carefully.
2.
In the exercise of their paternal care they shall be
on their guard lest anyone under their jurisdiction,
eager for revolutionary changes, writes against the
use of Latin in the teaching of the higher sacred studies
or in the liturgy, or through prejudice makes light
of the Holy Sees will in this regard or interprets it
falsely. Study of Latin as a prerequisite
3.
As is laid down in Canon Law (can. 1364) or commanded
by Our Predecessors, before Church students begin their
ecclesiastical studies proper, they shall be given a
sufficiently lengthy course of instruction in Latin
by highly competent masters, following a method designed
to teach them the language with the utmost accuracy.
"And that too for this reason: lest later on, when
they begin their major studies. ..they are unable by
reason of their ignorance of the language to gain a
full understanding of the doctrines or take part in
those scholastic disputations which constitute so excellent
an intellectual training for young men in the defense
of the faith." (15) We wish the same rule to apply
to those whom God calls to the priesthood at a more
advanced age, and whose classical studies have either
been neglected or conducted too superficially. No one
is to be admitted to the study of philosophy or theology
except he be thoroughly grounded in this language and
capable of using it.
TRADTIONAL
CURRICULUM TO BE RESTORED
4.
Wherever the study of Latin has suffered partial eclipse
through the assimilation of the academic program to
that which obtains in State public schools, with the
result that the instruction given is no longer so thorough
and well-grounded as formerly, there the traditional
method of teaching this language shall be completely
restored. Such is Our will, and there should be no doubt
in anyone's mind about the necessity of keeping a strict
watch over the course of studies followed by Church
students; and that not only as regards the number and
kinds of subjects they study, but also as regards the
length of time devoted to the teaching of these subjects.
Should circumstances of time and place demand the addition
of other subjects to the curriculum besides the usual
ones, then either the course of studies must be lengthened,
or these additional subjects must be condensed or their
study relegated to another time. Sacred sciences to
be taught in Latin
SACRED
SCIENCES TO BE TAUGHT IN LATIN
5.
In accordance with numerous previous instructions, the
major sacred sciences shall be taught in Latin, which,
as we know from many centuries of use, "must be
considered most suitable for explaining with the utmost
facility and clarity the most difficult and profound
ideas and concepts." (16) For apart from the fact
that it has long since been enriched with a vocabulary
of appropriate and unequivocal terms, best calculated
to safeguard the integrity of the Catholic faith, it
also serves in no slight measure to prune away useless
verbiage. Hence professors of these sciences in universities
or seminaries are required to speak Latin and to make
use of textbooks written in Latin. If ignorance of Latin
makes it difficult for some to obey these instructions,
they shall gradually be replaced by professors who are
suited to this task. Any difficulties that may be advanced
by students or professors must be overcome by the patient
insistence of the bishops or religious superiors, and
the good will of the professors.
A
LATIN ACADEMY
6.
Since Latin is the Church's living language, it must
be adequate to daily increasing linguistic requirements.
It must be furnished with new words that are apt and
suitable for expressing modern things, words that will
be uniform and universal in their application, and constructed
in conformity with the genius of the ancient Latin tongue.
Such was the method followed by the sacred Fathers and
the best writers among the scholastics.
To
this end, therefore, We commission the Sacred Congregation
of Seminaries and Universities to set up a Latin Academy
staffed by an international body of Latin and Greek
professors. The principal aim of this Academy--like
the national academies founded to promote their respective
languages--will be to superintend the proper development
of Latin, augmenting the Latin lexicon where necessary
with words which conform to the particular character
and color of the language.
It
will also conduct schools for the study of Latin of
every era, particularly the Christian one. The aim of
these schools will be to impart a fuller understanding
of Latin and the ability to use it and to write it with
proper elegance. They will exist for those who are destined
to teach Latin in seminaries and ecclesiastical colleges,
or to write decrees and judgment or conduct correspondence
in the ministries of the Holy See, diocesan curias,
and the offices of religious orders.
THE
TEACHING OF GREEK
7.
Latin is closely allied to Greek both in formal structure
and in the importance of its extant writings. Hence
as Our Predecessors have frequently ordained--future
ministers of the altar must be instructed in Greek in
the lower and middle schools. Thus when they come to
study the higher sciences--and especially if they are
aiming for a degree in Sacred Scripture or theology--they
will be enabled to follow the Greek sources of scholastic
philosophy and understand them correctly; and not only
these, but also the original texts of Sacred Scripture,
the liturgy, and the sacred Fathers. (17)
A
SYLLABUS FOR THE TEACHING OF LATIN
8.
We further commission the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries
and Universities to prepare a syllabus for the teaching
of Latin which all shall faithfully observe. The syllabus
will be designed to give those who follow it an adequate
understanding of the language and its use. Episcopal
boards may indeed rearrange this syllabus if circumstances
warrant, but they must never curtail it or alter its
nature. Ordinaries may not take it upon themselves to
put their own proposals into effect until these have
been examined and approved by the Sacred Congregation.
Finally,
in virtue of Our apostolic authority, We will and command
that all the decisions, decrees, proclamations, and
recommendations of this Our Constitution remain firmly
established and ratified, notwithstanding anything to
the contrary, however worthy of special note.
Given
at Rome, at St. Peters, on the feast of St. Peter's
Chair on the 22nd day of February in the year 1962,
the fourth of Our pontificate. John XXIII P.M.
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